What is Existentialism and Who Are Its Main Proponents?

what is existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, focusing on individual freedom, choice, and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent or absurd world. Rather than abstract theories, existentialism is often characterized by its concern with personal experience, human emotion, and confronting life’s most profound questions, such as why we exist and how we make sense of our lives in an unpredictable and often chaotic world.

What is Existentialism?

At its core, existentialism is concerned with the question of human existence: What does it mean to be? Existentialist thinkers explore themes such as:

  • Freedom and Responsibility: Existentialism holds that humans are radically free to make choices, but with this freedom comes a profound responsibility for those choices and their consequences.
  • Authenticity: Living authentically means accepting one’s freedom, making decisions true to oneself, and facing life’s uncertainties without succumbing to societal pressures or illusions.
  • Absurdity: Many existentialists believe that life has no inherent meaning or purpose; instead, meaning is something we must create for ourselves, even though the universe may appear indifferent.
  • Anxiety and Angst: The freedom to choose, combined with a lack of inherent meaning, often leads to existential angst—a feeling of anxiety or dread that arises from confronting the unknown or the consequences of our own freedom.

Existentialism is not a uniform philosophy but rather a collection of ideas and reflections from thinkers with diverse backgrounds and approaches. Let’s explore some of the main proponents of existentialism and their unique contributions.

1. Søren Kierkegaard: The Father of Existentialism

Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), a Danish philosopher and theologian, is often regarded as the father of existentialism. Although his work predates the official existentialist movement, Kierkegaard laid the groundwork for many existentialist themes, particularly through his exploration of faith, individuality, and personal choice.

Key contributions of Kierkegaard include:

  • The Leap of Faith: Kierkegaard argued that religious faith requires a “leap” beyond rationality and evidence. For him, true faith is inherently irrational and requires embracing uncertainty, which he believed was essential to living an authentic life.
  • Stages of Life: Kierkegaard described three stages of life: the aesthetic (seeking pleasure and avoiding commitment), the ethical (embracing duty and responsibility), and the religious (choosing faith and finding personal meaning).
  • Despair and Anxiety: He viewed despair as an inevitable aspect of human existence, arising from our struggle to reconcile our finite human limitations with our infinite capacity for self-reflection.

Kierkegaard’s emphasis on individuality and personal choice influenced later existentialist thinkers, especially his focus on how personal decisions shape identity and meaning.

2. Friedrich Nietzsche: The Philosopher of the Will to Power

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) is another key precursor to existentialism. Known for his bold and often provocative style, Nietzsche challenged traditional morality, religion, and the notion of objective truth. His philosophy emphasized the importance of personal strength, creativity, and living life passionately.

Nietzsche’s key ideas include:

  • Will to Power: Nietzsche argued that the fundamental drive in human life is not survival or pleasure but a “will to power”—the desire to grow, assert, and express oneself creatively. He believed that people should strive to transcend mediocrity and societal norms to achieve greatness.
  • The Übermensch (Overman): Nietzsche introduced the concept of the Übermensch, an individual who creates their own values and lives independently of societal norms. This idea became central to existentialist ideas of self-creation and authenticity.
  • The Death of God: Nietzsche declared that “God is dead,” meaning that traditional religious and moral structures had lost their power in modern society. He believed this created an existential void, forcing individuals to confront their freedom and create their own values.

Nietzsche’s emphasis on self-overcoming and his critique of traditional values inspired later existentialists to explore questions of freedom, morality, and personal meaning in a world without objective purpose.

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3. Jean-Paul Sartre: Existential Freedom and Responsibility

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) is one of the most prominent figures associated with existentialism, having popularized it in post-World War II France. Sartre argued that “existence precedes essence,” meaning that humans are not born with a predefined purpose or nature; rather, we must create our own identity and meaning through our choices.

Sartre’s core contributions to existentialism include:

  • Radical Freedom: Sartre argued that humans are “condemned to be free,” meaning that we have no inherent purpose and must create meaning through our actions. With this freedom comes the heavy burden of responsibility for everything we choose.
  • Bad Faith (Mauvaise Foi): Sartre introduced the concept of “bad faith” to describe self-deception, particularly when people deny their freedom by conforming to societal expectations or blaming external circumstances for their choices. Living authentically means embracing our freedom, even if it leads to discomfort or anxiety.
  • The Look and Objectification: Sartre explored how we perceive ourselves through the eyes of others, which can lead to feelings of objectification or loss of autonomy. This “look” from others can be a source of existential tension, as it forces us to confront how we are perceived and judged.

Sartre’s existentialism was both philosophical and political. He argued that individuals have a duty to create meaning not only for themselves but also in a way that respects others’ freedom, a perspective that profoundly influenced political and social movements.

4. Simone de Beauvoir: Feminism and Existential Freedom

Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986), a close collaborator of Sartre, extended existentialist ideas to address questions of gender, oppression, and freedom. Her groundbreaking work The Second Sex (1949) examines the ways in which society constructs women as “the Other,” systematically oppressing them and limiting their freedom.

Beauvoir’s contributions include:

  • Existential Feminism: Beauvoir argued that women are often relegated to a passive role in society and are expected to conform to societal norms. She encouraged women to embrace their freedom and define their own identities rather than accepting the limitations imposed by society.
  • The Other: In The Second Sex, Beauvoir explored how women are viewed as the “Other” in relation to men, who are considered the “Self” or norm. This concept is foundational in feminist theory and has influenced social theory and identity studies.
  • Freedom and Responsibility: Like Sartre, Beauvoir emphasized the importance of living authentically by taking responsibility for one’s choices and rejecting societal constraints. She argued that true freedom requires mutual respect and recognition of others’ autonomy.

Simone de Beauvoir’s integration of existentialism with feminist theory paved the way for the emergence of feminist existentialism and inspired later feminist philosophers to question traditional gender roles and seek individual freedom.

5. Albert Camus: The Philosophy of the Absurd

Although Albert Camus (1913–1960) is often associated with existentialism, he preferred to describe his philosophy as “the absurd.” In his works, such as The Myth of Sisyphus and The Stranger, Camus explored the notion that life’s search for meaning is inherently contradictory, as the universe appears indifferent to human desires for significance.

Camus’s main contributions include:

  • The Absurd: Camus defined the absurd as the conflict between humans’ desire for meaning and the universe’s apparent lack of purpose. He argued that we must accept the absurdity of life while still finding personal meaning and joy.
  • Revolt: Instead of succumbing to nihilism or despair, Camus advocated for a “revolt” against the absurd. This means embracing life fully, even if it lacks inherent purpose. Camus argued that we should live passionately and authentically despite life’s meaninglessness.
  • Sisyphus as a Metaphor: In The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus compared human life to the Greek myth of Sisyphus, condemned to roll a boulder up a hill only to have it roll down again. Camus saw Sisyphus’s struggle as a metaphor for human perseverance in the face of absurdity and encouraged readers to “imagine Sisyphus happy.”

Camus’s philosophy of the absurd has resonated with readers worldwide, emphasizing resilience and personal responsibility in a world that may not offer answers to life’s deepest questions.

The Legacy of Existentialism

Existentialism has left an indelible mark on literature, art, psychology, and philosophy, challenging individuals to take control of their lives, embrace freedom, and confront life’s inherent uncertainty. Through the works of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Sartre, Beauvoir, Camus, and others, existentialism encourages us to live meaningfully in a world without clear answers.

By focusing on personal responsibility, authenticity, and the courage to create meaning, existentialism remains a powerful philosophy for anyone wrestling with the complexities of modern life. Its central message endures: while life may not offer inherent meaning, we have the freedom—and responsibility—to define our own purpose, values, and identity.

Recommended reading

Plantinga, A., 1983. On existentialism. Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Philosophy in the Analytic Tradition, 44(1), pp.1-20. https://andrewmbailey.com/ap/On_Existentialism.pdf

Posted by Glenn Stevens (Contact)

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